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\me{Sharon Heimansohn, sheimans@klingon.cs.iupui.edu} % author(s)

\begin{document}
\docheader{Introduction to Computing}
{6}
{Operating Systems}

\begin{goallist}
\item Students will understand what an operating system does

\item Students will become familiar with several different operating systems

\item Students will learn about the important features of an operating
system, including the file management system

\item Students will practice using the features of several operating
systems to locate and copy files, format disks, and other skills

\item Students will recognize the difference between literal and
symbolic directory management schemes.

\item Students will be able to manipulate the directory structure of
even completely  unfamiliar systems through file management utilities

\item Students will place and retrieve files accurately in a complex
file structure using the save and load commands of unfamiliar software

\end{goallist}


\begin{prereqs}

\item Comfort with the keyboard and mouse

\item Experience with the STAIR process

\item Background in Essentials of Computing

\end{prereqs}

\section{Historical Perspective} 

Prior to the 1950's, computers such as the ENIAC, or Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Computer, had no operating system as such. In
order to run a program on the ENIAC, many people were required in
order to manually connect wires and set switches so the program would
run properly. It might take a week or longer to perform all these
operations for a program that took a few minutes or hours to run.
 
In 1981 IBM began selling its personal computer, the PC and MS-DOS
(Microsoft Disk Operating System) was chosen as the standard for this
computer. Before this, each type, or brand of computer had its own
particular operating system. Since programs are specific to an
operating system, software that would work on one computer would not
work on another.  With the development of MS-DOS, there was at least a
standard operating system for the so-called PC compatible systems.
Most machines based on the Intel chips used DOS as the standard
operating system, although computers based on different CPUs (like the
Apple lines) used their own unique operating system.

\begin{quest} 

Why was that a problem for computer
users?  

\end{quest}

In 1983 Apple introduced the first publicly available microcomputer
with a graphical user interface, the Apple Lisa. The reason most
people have not heard about the Apple Lisa is because it did not sell
well due to its prohibitive selling price of \$10,000. Then in 1984
Apple released the Macintosh at a cost of \$2,500. The high sales of
this computer showed the industry that people really wanted to have
computers, but they wanted them to be easier to use, and wanted GUIs
(Graphical User Interfaces).  The DOS world stayed away from the GUI
approach until the advent of Windows.

UNIX , another popular operating system, was created in 1969 at Bell
Laboratories, which was the research facility of AT\&T. It was born of
a need for a less expensive and more friendly programming
environment.  It retains its aura of higher - end computing.

\section{Operating Systems in General} 

\subsection{What They Do}
The operating system controls the input, output, and processing
activities for a computer. You might say it is the ``boss'' of what
happens in the software, in the hardware, and between the hardware and
software. A high quality operating system can make your computer more
effective and efficient, and so make you a more productive user.

\subsubsection{The Operating System as a Traffic Cop}
Another important thing the operating system does is to control the
resources of the computer. These resources include computer memory,
file storage space, and the computer processor. One of the most
valuable of these resources is the computer processor, or CPU. The
CPU, or central processing unit handles one instruction at a
time. Modern computers, the ones manufactured in about the last five
years for example, will do multitasking, which means they can run more
than one program at a time. If the CPU only does one thing at a time,
how can the computer run more than one program? Well, the operating
system helps the CPU budget its processing time so computers can do
multitasking. The processor works so quickly doing each task, that to
us it seems as if things are happening at the same time. However, even
multitasking computers have their limits; you can only run so many
programs at the same time.  

Parents understand the concept of multitasking only too well.  If you
are trying to answer the phone, catch up on some work, getting ready
for soccer practice, and cooking dinner all at the same time, you are
multitasking.  As you know, when you do this, your performance at each
job may suffer.  If you have too many jobs to do at once, you will
just break down into screaming fits of anguish.  The computer will do
the equivalent if you give it too much to do at once.


\begin{quest} 

Why is there a limit to the number of programs a multitasking computer
can run at the same time?

\end{quest}

\subsubsection{The Operating System as a Communication System}
The operating system helps all the hardware components communicate
with each other. For example, if the processor needs to talk to the
programs, or the program needs to communicate with the printer, the
operating system helps them do that. The operating system also works
to maximize the speed at which everything happens, so for example, you
don't have to go get a cup of coffee while you wait for your computer
to copy a file.

\subsubsection{The Operating System as a Box of Tools}
There are utility programs contained within operating systems that
help you do things like move files around, create directories, copy
files, format disks, and so on. We will be looking at some examples of
these utility programs for operating systems such as Windows 95 and
Macintosh System 7.5.

\subsubsection{The Operating System as a Self-Starter}
Loading the operating system into the computer's memory is called
booting. (No, it doesn't mean you have to ``kick'' the computer, even
though sometimes you would probably like to.) The term ``boot'' comes
from the concept of pulling yourself up by the bootstraps.  As the
computer turns on, some instructions in ROM tell the computer how to
'wake up', find the peripherals, and load the operating system into
memory.

If the computer is turned on from the off position, it is called a
hard boot. If the computer is reset while it is on it is called a soft
boot. Most computers now have reset keys which allow you to soft boot
the computer; with older computers the standard way to soft boot was
to use the ctr-alt-del keys.

\begin{quest} 
When might you want to soft
boot your computer?  
\end{quest}


\subsection{Command Lines and GUIs}
\subsubsection{Command Line Interfaces}
An operating system is a software program that helps the user interact
with a computer. The operating system gives you an interface, or what
comes between you and the computer. When you look at your computer
screen and all you see is a letter with some funny symbols along with
it, such as: \verb/c:\>/, you are using a command line interface. A
command line interface means you must type in what you want your
computer to do, (what we call the command), and you must type it
correctly. DOS and UNIX are both command line operating systems.
(although they do both have graphical interfaces avaialable).  Command
line operating systems are very efficient in the hands of a skilled
user, but they are utterly bewildering to a novice.  When you are
faced with a command line, you have to know what you want to do,
exactly what to type, and you may even have to have special training
to understand what it tells you back!  Command line operating systems
are easy to create, and do not require much from the computer.
Earlier machines had command line systems, but as you might guess, not
everyone enjoyed them.

\subsubsection{Graphic User Interfaces}
Fortunately, a new kind of operating system came along.  If you see
some nice little pictures with descriptive words underneath them, you
are probably using a GUI (pronounced gooey, if you can believe that)
or graphical user interface. A GUI lets you click with the mouse to
start a program or do other computer tasks such as copying a file.
The biggest advantage of a GUI is that little pictures are drawn on
the screen to make the concepts easier to understand.  In a GUI, you
might be able to move a file by clicking on a picture of that file and
dragging it to another part of the screen.  In a comand line system,
you would have no happy little pictures.  You would have to know the
exact command required to move the file. 

\subsection{Examples} 

\subsubsection{DOS}

MS-DOS which stands for Microsoft Disk Operating System was purchased
by Bill Gates from a small company; he then refined it and sold it to
IBM to be used by them as the standard operating system on the
Personal Computer in 1981. MS-DOS is a command line operating system,
which means you must type in commands for the things you want the
computer to do. The syntax (the way you enter the commands) must be
correct or you get some obscure error message like: bad command or
file name. Needless to say, this created irritation and frustration
for people just learning the computer and some people gave up in
disgust. For the people who persevered and learned how to work
effectively in DOS, working in this operating system can be elegant
and fast. Of course, this meant they had to memorize many commands or
look them up every time they were used.

\subsubsection{UNIX} 

UNIX is the most popular operating system for multi-user computers. It
is also a command line interface and just to make it REALLY confusing,
it is also case sensitive. To be case sensitive means the operating
system recognizes a difference between upper case characters and lower
case characters. For example, typing in ls (the UNIX command for
listing your files) will give you a listing of your files, but if you
type LS, you will get the message ``command not found''. Commands in
UNIX are usually in lower case and most UNIX users will use lower case
for file names to make this aspect of UNIX a little easier to
handle. In fact, people who work both in a Windows environment and a
UNIX environment find it easier to always use lower case, no matter
where they are working.  There are graphical shells to UNIX which make
it act like a GUI.  In this class, we will think of UNIX as mainly a
command line operating system.
\subsubsection{Windows 3.1} 

Windows 3.1 is an operating system that was developed by Microsoft for
IBM type computers. Windows 3.1 provides the user with a GUI
environment. GUI is graphical user interface and this means there are
point and click options available with which to work on the
computer. We use the mouse to point and click on an icon to open
program groups, launch programs and complete other tasks. The icons in
Windows 3.1 are the small picture representations of a ``doorway'' to a
task or program. The advantages of having a graphical user interface
are obvious, it is much easier to move the pointer with the mouse and
then click to do what we want with the computer than to remember
obscure and sometimes complicated commands. Windows 3.1 gives you, the
user a file management program called (with the usual brilliance and
imagination of computer scientists) file manager, that is easy to
understand and use. Windows 3.1 requires MS-DOS for installation.  The
main program in Windows 3.1 is Program Manager. If you close Program
Manager, you close Windows 3.1.  

\subsubsection{Windows 95} 

Windows 95 is the operating system developed by Microsoft and released
in August of 1995. It is an upgrade to Windows 3.1, and interestingly
it does not require MS-DOS for installation. MS-DOS, however, is
included as part of the operating system.  It incorporates many of the
successful design features of Windows 3.1 with a few additions.  

\begin{quest} 
Any ideas why Microsoft include DOS with Windows 95?  
\end{quest}

\subsubsection{Mac System 7.0}

System 7.0 and other versions such as System 7.5 and System 8.0, is
the operating system for Macintosh computers. This operating system
also has a GUI environment. The main working area of the Macintosh
computer that is provided by the System 7.0 operating system is called
the desktop. On the desktop there are icons that allow you point and
click access to programs and computer functions, and pull-down menus
that let you open folders and start programs.

\begin{quest}
What is a ``pull-down'' menu?

\end{quest}




\section{Problems Operating Systems are Good at Solving}
As you have seen, computers have gotten very complex.  One computer
might have hundreds of programs stored on the hard drive.  Each
program might be able to read hundreds of documents.  A program might
also have all kinds of fancy devices attached to it like scanners,
printers, and sound cards.  How is this stuff organized?  Is there
some kind of central control?  

Here are some more specific problems....
\begin{itemize}
\item How do I find my word processing program?
\item Where should I save the letter I just wrote?
\item I just bought a new printer and hooked it up.  How do I access
its fancy features
\item How can I organize all the programs and documents I need to work
efficiently? 
\end{itemize}

As you can see, the central problems that operating systems are there
to solve are problems of {\bf organization.}  Mainly, operating
systems help you to organize all the stuff on your disk drives.
Operating systems are also invaluable in giving your computer an
interface, or 'look and feel' that you can interact with efficiently.
Also, operating systems help all the parts of your system communicate
with each other.

\subsection{Literal Disk organization}

How things are organized in an operating system is important both to
the computer and the user. Whether you are working in a command line
system, like MS-DOS or a GUI environment like System 7, how things are
organized follow the same basic ideas. That is a good thing for those
of use who work in several different platforms!  


\subsubsection{The ``Tree''}

You can think of the file structure in an operating system
much like that of a ``tree''. At the bottom of the tree are the roots,
and for our purposes, the root directory. Branches can then be
followed to the next level which are the directories. From the
directories further branches can be followed to the subdirectories,
and so on until you reach the files. This structure is valid whether
you are working in a command line interface, or a GUI. Also, in much
the same way you would have to back down a tree to the root to climb
to a different branch, to reach a file that is in a different
directory, you must go back to the root directory and then go down the
other branches to the file you want. This is true no matter where you
are working, but it is more easily to accomplish in a GUI
environment. If you are working in DOS or UNIX, getting to a file in a
different directory can involve major amounts of typing!

\subsubsection{The Drive}
Operating systems are very concerned with how things are stored on
drives.  The typical computer system has a number of different drives
attached.  The hard drive,  any floppy drives, cd-ROMs, or network
drives might be be attached to your machine.  You might think of each
drive as a seperate tree.  Disk drives usually have names.  In the
DOS/Windows world, drives have boring names like A: (The main floppy
drive ) and C: (The main hard drive.)  Newer operating systems allow
more colorful names for drives like ``my hard drive'' or ``Anita's floppy''

In GUI type environments like Windows and Macintosh System 7, the file
and directory structure works in the same way it does in a command
line operating system, but getting around to find what you want is
much easier. Instead of typing a: at the C prompt to change to A:
drive, you click the mouse on a PICTURE of the drive you want to move
to. For example, in the File Manager program of Windows 3.1, to change
the drive you click on a different drive box. The program then changes
the focus to the drive you want with the directories and
subdirectories showing on the left side of the screen and the files
showing on the right. Not only is this system more user-friendly, but
you can see more of the directories and files you have at the same
time. Some operating systems and file management programs limit you to
looking at a small part of the directories, subdirectories, and files
residing on your computer. For example, if you are in the WINDOWS
directory, you can look at all the subdirectories and files DIRECTLY
under this directory, but you can't look at the files in the WORD
subdirectory unless you change to that subdirectory. Also, once you
change to that subdirectory, you can see all the files and
subdirectories under the WORD subdirectory, but you can no longer see
anything else directory under WINDOWS. If you are sitting on the
branch of a tree and can see all the leaves and branches leaving from
your particular branch, but you can't see the rest of the tree.

\subsubsection{The Root}

The root directory is a general starting place on each drive. If you
have a computer that is MS-DOS only, when you turn on this computer
you see something that looks like \verb/C:\>/. This, as we have noted
previously, is called the C prompt. The backward slash with no words
after it tells you your location in the computer's organized filing
system is at the root directory of drive C. By typing a: and hitting
the enter key you would see the prompt change to \verb/A:\>/. This would
indicate you are at the root directory of A drive.

\begin{quest} 

Notice that a: was typed at the C prompt instead of A: in order to
change the drive location. Was this a mistake? If not, why not?  
\end{quest}

The root is important because you always know where it is.  Which
instructions make more sense?

Go into the third house on the right.

or

Start at the corner of 4th and Main.
Face the water tower.
Go into the third house on the right.

\subsubsection{Directories}

The directories are the next level after the root directory. The
programs you install on your computer usually create their own
directories, or you may create a directory to keep all your personal
files in one place. 

In the old days when floppy disks had only a few kilobytes worth of
storage, and hard drives had not been invented, the root directory was
all that anyone needed to know about.  In those days, you could rarely
fit more than a few files in a disk.  All of your organization of
files was based on which floppy disk you had in the drive when you
saved a file.  With advances like larger floppies and hard drives, the
number of files that could be stored on one disk became much larger.
It became much more difficult to work with files, because a hard drive
might contain hundreds or even thousands of files!  It became evident
that some way of subdividing a large drive was necessary, so that all
like files could be placed together in some way.
  
To move to a different directory in MS-DOS you
would have to type the name of the directory at the prompt and hit the
enter key. For example, you want to see how many subdirectories and
files that are in the Windows directory. At the C prompt you type CD
(for change directory) windows and hit the enter key. (Remember,
MS-DOS is not case sensitive.) The next thing you will see on your
screen is:

\verb/C:\WINDOWS>/

This means you are now in the WINDOWS directory. Typing DIR at this
prompt will show you the subdirectories and files under the WINDOWS
directory.  In a GUI system like Windows 3.1 you could change to the
WINDOWS directory by clicking on the yellow folder beside the word
windows. This opens the windows directory. What you see on the right
of the screen are the subdirectories and files contained in windows.

\begin{quest}

You notice while looking at the windows directory that the word
windows is in lower case characters. Does this mean that Windows 3.1
is case sensitive?

\end{quest}

\subsubsection{Example}

Let's say you have a computer with MS-DOS only on it and there are a
lot of programs out there which require Windows 3.1 or Windows 95 to
operate. You decide to upgrade your computer with Windows 3.1 because
your computer is older and not quite powerful enough to run Windows
95. You install Windows 3.1 without any problem and after its done
installing you check to make sure its on C drive by typing DIR at the
C prompt. You notice there is a new directory called WINDOWS and sure
enough, after changing to that directory and typing DIR again, lots of
files fly by on the screen. Obviously, Windows 3.1 is a large program
with many files. Creating its own directory keeps the subdirectories
and files of Windows 3.1 organized and helps you, as the user find
what you need.

\subsubsection{Subdirectories}

Subdirectories are the next level in the file management system after
directories. In fact, there may be several levels of subdirectories
under one directory before you get to any files.

\subsubsection{Example}

Let's say you are looking for the Clipart files on your computer. You
wish to see what pictures are available so you can use one or two in a
document for a class where you really want to impress your
instructor. Since your computer has Windows 95 it should be easy to
find these files, after all you can click on the different yellow
folders to see what is contained in those folders. Under the Windows
directory you find the subdirectory, Msoffice. Under this subdirectory
there are several subdirectories, including Word. Under the Word
subdirectory, there are several more subdirectories, along with some
files. One of these subdirectories is the Clipart subdirectory. Oh,
good, this is just what you were looking for. You click on the Clipart
subdirectory folder and find the Clipart files which your computer
has.

\begin{quest}
You can create your own directories, and subdirectories on the hard
drive of your computer, can they be created on a diskette?  
\end{quest}

\begin{quest}

Just because you can create directories and subdirectories on a
diskette; does that mean you should do it?

\end{quest}

\subsubsection{Files}

A file may be considered an organized collection of computer
information. Files are stored on the computer with the help of the
operating system. Each operating system has its own convention for
naming files; the requirements for UNIX are different than those of
Windows 95 for example. Both MS-DOS and Windows 3.1 limit the number
of characters used in a filename to eight before the period and three
after the period, and spaces and punctuation (besides the period) are
not allowed in these operating systems.

Like:
        Myfile.doc
        Yourfile.xls
        Herfile.txt

Although there is a limit of eight characters before the period, it is
acceptable to use fewer than eight.  Windows 95 allows more than eight
characters for filenames, along with spaces. That is helpful as it
allows the user to more completely describe a particular file. In
fact, Windows 95 will allow up to 255 characters for a filename.  Be
careful using these features with too much abandon, however.
Sometimes the spaces and longer names can get you in trouble.
Experienced computer users often stick with the 8.3 naming convention
regardless of the operating system they are using, because they know
it will always work.



\begin{quest} 

If you create a file while you are in Windows 95 and it has a long
file name, what happens when you go switch to a computer using Windows
3.1?

\end{quest}


\subsection{Tools Operating Systems Give You}

\subsubsection{User Interface} 

The user interface is what is present between you and your
computer. As mentioned above, there are two main types of user
interface, the command line, and the GUI. Both the UNIX and DOS
operating systems use a command line interface. What the user sees on
the screen when they boot up a computer with a command line operating
system is called a prompt.  The graphics, color scheme, buttons, mouse
cursor, and many of the other things you might see on your screen are
the user interface.  Programs that are written for your machine depend
on the user interface as well, so they all might have certain things
in common.  For example, in modern programs, the loading and saving
mechanisms look very common among all the programs in an operating
system.  Loading a file in Windows 95 looks pretty much the same,
whether you are loading a word processor file, a spreadsheet, or a
graphic.  These programs all look similar because they inherited the
interface and file handling capabilities from the operating system.

\subsubsection{Management Tools} 

The operating system also gives you and your programs a series of
tools to help you manage files.  Much of what the operating system
does is not obvious to the user.  Almost all programs interact with
the operating system, but the user does not usually need to know when
that is happening.  Whenever you deal with the directory structure,
you are dealing with the operating system, even if you are in another
program.  In addition to the things operating systems do for other
programs, they have some special programs that help you control your
system directly.

\subsection{Handling Multitasking}

\subsubsection{Overview of multitasking}

The concept of multitasking is critical to modern operating systems.
Users depend on the ability to run more than one program at a time.
This ability requires some extra work on the part of the operating
system.  Any operating system needs to have a way to keep track of
which programs are currently open (meaning loaded into memory) and
which one is ACTIVE.  Only one program at a time is active.  The
active program is the one that is currently getting your attention.
Usually the active program looks like it is in front of the others on
the screen.  It might overlap other programs that are visible in the
background. An active program usually also has a different colored
caption than other programs.  Any program that is visible is open, but
may not be the active program.  Any multitasking operating system will
have ways to switch between active programs and some way of
determining which programs are active and which are open.

\subsubsection{Multitasking in Windows 3.1} 

Open programs in Win 3.1 are usually visible on the desktop.  If your
active program is maximized, it is hard to see minimized open
programs.  Your best bet is to minimize everything that is running.
In this operating system, all minimized programs are on the desktop.
NOTE: This is NOT the way the desktop works in Win 95 and Mac. Double
- Click on a minimized program to make it the active program.  You can
also use the control-tab or control - esc keys to look at the programs
that are open.  

\subsubsection{Multitasking in Windows 95} 

Windows 95
added the taskbar to make multitasking a little easier. This bar,
which is usually along the bottom of the screen, shows all the
programs that are currently open.  The icon for the active program
looks like it is pushed in. You can switch to another open program by
clicking on its icon in the taskbar.  

\subsubsection{Multitasking in Macintosh}

The Macintosh system 7.0 and later handles multitasking pretty much
the same way that the other operating systems do.  There are a couple
of key differences.  In the Windows world, each window can have its
own menu visible.  If you have three windows on the screen, you could
see three menus.  In the Mac world, there is only one menu, and it is
always on the top of the screen.  It is conceivable to have a program
showing on the screen and the menu from a completely different (!)
program at the top of the screen.  This happens quite a lot to
beginners.  The key to multitasking in the Mac environment is the
programs menu., on the upper right hand corner of the screen.  This
menu shows a little icon representing the currently active program.
If you open the menu, you can see all the other open (inactive)
programs.  If you use this menu to hide programs, the only way you can
get back to them is through the programs menu again.  If you get in
trouble on a Macintosh, the first thing to do is check to see if you
are using the program you think you are using.  


\section{File Management Programs - for Exploring the Disk}

 One major kind of operating system utility is called a file
management program.  It can be completely integrated into the
operating system (as in Mac System 7+) or a separate program (like the
Windows 3.1 file manager).  Regardless of how you get to it, any file
management program works pretty much the same way, and has the same
things to offer you.

\subsection{Things you can find in any file manager program}

\subsubsection{An indicator of the current drive}

 Most file management systems insist on thinking of one drive at a
time.  Somewhere on the screen you should see some kind of indicator
telling you which drive you are on.  Make sure you know this!  People
often get very lost looking for something to find out they were not
even looking on the right drive!

\subsubsection{A way to change drives}

 Often there will be some kind of pictures or descriptions of the
different drives available in the system.  You can usually change
drives by clicking on the picture of the drive you want.  If clicking
doesn't do what you want, try double - clicking, or right - clicking.
You never know.

\subsubsection{A picture of the tree structure}

Most file management utilities have some kind of graphic
representation of the tree structure.  Often this representation looks
like a tree or an outline.  Many times part of the screen will be
dedicated to this picture of the overall structure of the current
drive.  Since there may be more subdirectories than can be shown on
one screen, there will probably be ways to scroll among the branches
of the tree.  You may also have the option to look only at certain
levels of the structure.  This is handy when you are interested in
gaining a 'big picture' of how the drive is organized

\subsubsection{An indicator of the current directory}

 There should be some way of determining where you are in the
directory structure.  There may be some scary looking path, like

\verb/C:\users\cs100\examples/

or you may just have to rely on the directory listing to know where
you are.

\subsubsection{A list of subdirectories on the current directory}

You should be able to find a list of the subdirectories that your
current directory has access to.  Sometimes you will see this as part
of the picture of the tree structure.  Sometimes subdirectories will
look like little folders. Sometimes subdirectories will be listed in
the same place as files!  You can usually tell the difference, because
the subdirectories will often have an icon like a folder to indicate
they are not simply files but directories.  Note that there might not
be any sudirectories in a specific directory.

\subsubsection{A way to change directories}

The list of directories is often clickable.  If you see a subdirectory
that looks interesting, you may be able to click on it to change.  As
always, try clicking.  If that doesn't work, try double - clicking or
right - clicking.

\subsubsection{A list of files on the current directory}

Of course the reason to have directories and subdirectories is so they
can contain files.  You will usually see a list of the files in a
directory.  You might just see the names of the files, or you might
see the names with little icons that represent what kind of
information the files contain. Often if you double-click on a file,
something will happen.  If the file is a program, it will run.  If it
is a document, the operating system will try to open the proper
program for viewing or editing the file.  For example, if I have a
program called ``Letter.doc'' on my drive somewhere, I might navigate my
way to that file and double - click on it.  When I do so, my operating
system recognizes by the ``.DOC'' extension that this is a program for
Word, and it runs word with my letter loaded up and ready to edit.
Cool!

\subsubsection{A way to back up to the previous directory}

Sometimes you will see .. (two dots) listed as a directory.  That is a
special name for the PARENT of the current directory.  Select this to
``back up'' a level towards the root directory. When you first look at a
disk, check to see if you are looking at the root directory.  If not,
it is a really good idea to start navigating by going to the root.
Just keep backing up until you are at the root.

\subsection{Common File Management Programs}

\subsubsection{File Manager (Windows 3.1)}

\imagefig{FileMan}{The File Manager}

File Manager is the file management program provided by Windows
3.1. It helps you do things like copy files, delete files and format a
disk. When File Manager is open you will notice on the left side of
your screen a bunch of yellow folders with words written beside each
yellow folder. On the right side of the screen may be some more yellow
folders, and other pictures with words beside them. In File Manager
language, the left side of the screen is called the ``Tree'' and the
right side is called the ``Directory''. The Tree side shows the root
directory along with the directories and subdirectories of the drive
in which you are focused. Its easy to change the drive focus by
clicking on a different drive box. Of course it is necessary to have a
diskette in drive a: or b: before clicking on either of those drive
boxes. (Why?) In File Manager the File menu lets you do things like
copy files, rename files and run programs. The Disk menu makes it easy
to format or copy a disk.

\subsubsection{Explorer (Windows 95)}

\imagefig{Explor}{Windows (95) Explorer}

Windows 95 Explorer shows the drives, directories and subdirectories
that are on your computer on the left side of the screen. If the drive
or directory is closed you see a plus sign beside it; if it is open
there is a minus sign. On the right side of the screen are the
directories and/or files. In Windows 95 Explorer the view of the files
on the right side (how they look) can be changed depending on the
preference of the user; if you like large icons the files can look
like large icons; if you like lists the files and directories can be
listed. Explorer will help you find, copy, rename, and delete files.d

\subsubsection{My Computer (Windows 95)}

\imagefigg{MyComp}{``My Computer''}{6.5}
My Computer in Windows 95 allows you to search for directories and
files on every drive on your computer, copy files, and format
diskettes. The My Computer icon is always on the desktop and may be
opened by double clicking on it. The view of folders and files may
also be changed to a list or icons, depending on the preference of the
user, just as in Windows Explorer. One of the main differences between
the two file management programs is that in Windows Explorer you work
in one window, and in My Computer you work in successive windows as
you open folders to look at files.

My Computer can be set up to look at only one window at a time.  My
Computer may be the most comfortable approach for those who are used
to the Macintosh operating system.

\subsubsection{The Mac Desktop (Macintosh)}

%\image[right]{mac.gif}
In Macintosh computers the Desktop is where you launch and store
programs, copy files, make alterations in the way your computer works,
etc. The icons that appear on the desktop may be for drives,
applications, folders, or documents. Applications, or programs are
used to create documents and folders are to help organize programs and
documents. (Does this sound familiar?) Just as in other operating
systems, in System 7+ there are several ways to do things. For
example, on the Desktop, there are several ways to start a
program. You can click once on the icon and then choose open from the
File menu. The program can also be started by clicking twice on the
icon or by using a keyboard shortcut; the command key plus the letter
O. These choices let you decide what works best and is the most
comfortable for you. 

\subsubsection{File Management in a command line system}

\imagefigg{DOS}{Command line {\tt dir} command}{6.5}
There are file management programs in command line systems, but most
file management is done by interacting directly with the operating
system.  To do this, you have to know the commands and syntax.  Below,
you will see a picture that illustrates changing to the windows
directory and looking at the files in that directory using DOS.

\subsection{Problems File Management Systems can Help You Solve}

\subsubsection{Organizing Your Disk} 

File management programs help you
organize directories, subdirectories, and files so their location
makes sense and you can find files when you need them. Most computers
have several different drives, including c: or the hard drive, the
diskette drives, a: and/or b: and d: which is usually the CD-ROM
drive. Organizing the many directories and the hundreds of files can
be very challenging, especially to the uninitiated. The good news is
however, that file management programs are very good at helping solve
this problem and the organization of directories, subdirectories and
files is very similar no matter which operating system you have.

\begin{quest}

What is the file and directory structure like in any operating system?

\end{quest}

\subsubsection{Finding Where Things Are}

All though the details for finding things in your directory structure
can vary greatly depending on what your computer configuration is
like, what operating system you are using, and which tools you use,
there are some strategies you can use to help find files efficiently.

Your program may have a searching tool.  The start menu in Win 95 has
such a tool.  You can also access such a tool in Macintosh by hitting
the command key with the F key.  Search tools usually ask you which
drive you want to start on.  They also may ask which directory of the
drive you want to access.

If you can't find a searching tool, or you just want to browse, use
some sort of file management tool.  Use that tool to follow the
following algorithm:

\begin {itemize}

\item Guess which drive contains the file you are looking for.  Choose
that drive.

\item Go to the root directory of the drive.  You would be amazed how
often people miss this step and get totally baffled.

\item look at the files in this directory.  Do you see the file you want?
If so, activate it.  You're done!

\item If you don't see the file you were looking for, look at the
subdirectories of this directory.  Choose the most likely subdirectory
and go there.  Repeat the last three steps until you find the file or
reach a dead end.  If you reach a dead end, back up until you find
another likely path, then keep searching.  How you apply this
technique depends entirely on the operating system and file management
program you are using.  In the lab, you will find the same file using
different commands in different programs, but the algorithm never
changes.

\end {itemize}

\subsubsection{Manipulating Files (Copying, Deleting, etc.)}

File management programs give you the tools you need to copy files,
delete files, and rename them. Again, depending on the operating
system, the way you accomplish these tasks is a little different. In
command line systems like MS-DOS the commands to copy, delete,
etc. must be typed in. To copy a file in MS-DOS you would type
something like the following at the prompt.

\begin{verbatim}
        c:\>copy myfile.doc a:
\end{verbatim}

What this command would do is copy the file called myfile.doc from c:
drive to a: drive (the diskette drive).  In Windows 3.1,Windows 95, or
System 7+ operating systems files may be copied by using the mouse to
``drag and drop'' the icon which represents the file. Of course, there
are several ways to accomplish these tasks; pull-down menus may be
used to copy, delete, or rename files for example.

\subsubsection{Manipulating Directories (Making New Ones and Naming Them )}

There are times when you want to create new directories and
subdirectories in order to improve the organization of your
computer. This is easily accomplished in GUI systems by using
pull-down menus and choosing a command that says something like create
directory for example. Its a little more difficult in command line
systems; in UNIX you would type the command mkdir at the prompt
followed by the name of the directory you wish to create. In MS-DOS
the command is: MD new directory.

\subsection{Tools File Management Programs Give You}

\subsubsection{Visual Representation of Directory Structure}

Graphical interface systems give you a visual representation of
directory structure. Whether you are working in Windows 3.1, Windows
95 or System 7+ the directories and subdirectories are represented by
yellow folders.

\subsubsection{Drag and Drop Features}

In GUI systems copying files is easy because of the drag and drop
capabilities in these systems.  
\subsubsection{Graphic Representation of Files and Directories} 

Files and Directories are represented by icons in GUI
systems. Copying, deleting, and moving files or directories is easy
with a mouse and the drag and drop feature.  

\subsubsection{File and Directory Manipulation Tools (Menus \&
Toolbars)}

These GUI operating systems give you ways to handle directories
and files other than manipulating the icons which represent
them. There are pull-down menus and toolbars with menu choices and
tools to help you perform the tasks of copying, moving, and deleting
files.


\subsubsection{Example}

Dave is an FBI agent working on a complex case involving many
computers and several operating systems. He has learned that there is
a specific person who has vital information on her computer the FBI
needs to make their case. He manages to get into her office, but Dave
only has ten minutes to download the information onto a diskette he
just happens to have in his pocket. He has never used her computer
before, but because he understands how operating system file
management systems work, he feels confident he can get the information
he needs in less than ten minutes.

He sits behind the computer and since it is already on he feels lucky,
he won't have to wait for the computer to boot up. He moves the mouse
to remove the screen saver and sees that this particular computer has
a Windows 95 operating system. Although Dave has used MS-DOS and UNIX
operating systems, he is glad that this computer has a Windows 95
operating system because he won't have to take the time to type
commands.

The file he is looking for is called test information.txt. Dave knows
by the extension that the file is a text file that was created by a
word processor. The first thing he does is start Windows Explorer by
clicking on the start button on the task bar at the bottom of the
screen. This gives Dave a pull-up menu with several menu choices
including programs. He clicks on programs and then chooses Windows
Explorer. He then repeats this process to open Windows Explorer
again. As soon as they are both open he places his diskette into drive
a:. He then changes the focus of one window to a: drive. He moves his
mouse to a blank place on the taskbar and clicks the right mouse
button. He has some more choices, including Tile Horizontally which he
clicks. The two windows then line up nicely on the screen.

Dave then takes a look at the window which is focused on c:
drive. There are many directories and subdirectories, but Dave only
has seven minutes left, so he doesn't have time to search every
subdirectory for the file he wants. He clicks on the various menus to
see what choices there are and he is in luck! In the Tools menu there
is a command called Find. He clicks on this command and a dialog box
appears. This dialog box gives Dave a place to type in the name of the
file, along with a place to enter the drive where the file lives. He
enters the name of the file and the location, then clicks on Find
Now. He waits about one minute while the program looks for the file
then it is located. Dave then uses the click and drag feature to click
on the file icon and drag it to the a: drive window. He waits the few
seconds this procedure takes; closes both copies of Windows Explorer
and removes his diskette. He leaves the office with two minutes to
spare!
 

\section{Symbolic Representation Schemes}

\subsection{Common Programs}

\subsubsection{Program Manager - Windows 3.1}

\imagefigg{ProgMan}{The Program Manager}{6.5}
Program Manager is the main program in Windows 3.1. What you see when
you look at Program Manager are various program group icons. If you
double click on these program group icons the program groups are
opened and other icons are visible. These various icons are symbolic
because they do not really represent files or directories; they are
pathways to files, programs or directories. These icons may be deleted
without deleting the file itself. If the icon is deleted, the program
is still in your computer. The icons may also be copied into several
program groups for the convenience of the user. For example, file
manager is used so frequently, the icon (which is usually a yellow
file cabinet) is copied from the main program group to other program
groups such as accessories.

\subsubsection{Start Button - Windows 95}

\imagefig{Start}{The ``Start'' Button}
The Start Button on the taskbar in Windows 95 also uses a symbolic
representation scheme. The menu choices on the Start Button may be
added or deleted as the user wishes, without effecting the files and
programs themselves.

\subsubsection{Desktop - Windows 95}

\imagefig{Desk}{The Windows 95 Desktop}
The Desktop in Windows 95 contains icons which are shortcuts to launch
programs. These icons are also symbolic representations; deleting,
creating, or moving them does not affect the files or programs
themselves. Desktop shortcuts are very handy to launch programs and
are very easy to create. However there is probably a maximum number of
shortcut icons you should have on the desktop. (Why?)


\subsubsection{Apple Menu - Mac System 7+}

The Apple Menu on System 7+ works in very much the same way the
pull-up menu from the Start Button in Windows 95 works. Just as in
Windows 95, the Apple Menu gives you menu choices that are
symbolic. You will notice that some of these menu choices have arrows
pointing to the right. If these items are highlighted other menus
appear with other choices. As these items are symbolic representations
of directories, subdirectories, and files, deleting or copying does
not affect the underlying files, just as is the case with other
symbolic representation schemes.

\subsection{Problems Symbolic Schemes are Good at Solving}

\subsubsection{A Custom File System}

One theme of the GUI revolution is the ability to custimize your
computer to the way you think and work.  The tools we have talked
about so far are great at dealing with the physical structure of files
and directories on your disk, but the way your disk is organized may
not be the way you want to think about your files.  For example, most
modern program install themselves, and put themselves in directories
they create.  If you don't like the way the program is stored on the
disk, you could change it, but that would be a lot of work.  Also, you
may have all the word processor files in one directory, all the
spreadsheets in another, and so on.  This may be convenient sometimes,
but you may want to organize things differently, by project, for
example.  You might have a project that uses some word processor
files, some spreadsheet files, and some other programs.  You might
want to have copies of all these programs organized together.  You
might also want to have copies of common programs available in a
number of ways.  One solution would be to actually copy these files
over through a file management system, but such a solution would be
difficult, prone to errors, and tedious.  Wouldn't it be great if
there were some way you could make little shortcuts to programs and
files that could be easily manipulated?

\subsubsection{Virtual Files, Virtual Directories}

Most operating systems have some features that give you exactly that
flexibility without requiring you to change the physical locations of
things on the hard drives.  You can use such a system to place the
programs and files you need most frequently in special areas that are
easy to access.  In your symbolic structure you have some way of
creating groups of programs or files.  These groups might be in a menu
(like Mac System 7 or Win 95 start menu), they may be in folders, or
they might be something else!  The icons you create in a symbolic
structure are generally POINTERS to files, rather than the actual
files.  The advantage of this approach is that you can comfortably
delete a symbolic link to a file without deleting the actual location
of the file.

\subsubsection{Example}

Mitch teaches a computer science introductory class.  He has people
work on word processing, spreadsheets, databases, and internet
programs.  All these programs have already been installed on his
computer.  He wants to put them in a group together, but he doesn't
want to change where they are on the disk.  Since he is using Windows
3.1, he knows that the program manager is the main symbolic management
program in the system.  He goes to Program manager, and surfs the
menus until he finds an item called ``new program group.''  He selects
that option, and gets a prompt for the name of his group.  He decides
to call it CS100.  When he looks at program manager again, it has a
number of groups available.  One of the icons says CS100.  He double
clicks on it, and finds it is empty.  He isn't too concerned about
this, because he wants to put stuff in it.  He opens file manager to
find the files and programs that he wants in this CS100 group.
(because Windows 3.1 can handle multitasking, it is no problem to have
two different programs open at once) He finds his word processing
program in file manager, and drags it to the CS100 group window in
program manager.  An icon for his word processing program magically
appears in the CS100 group!  This is just a SHORTCUT to the word
processing program.  The file has not moved at all.  It is still where
he found it in file manager.  He repeats this process with all the
other applications and files that he wants.

\begin{quest}

What if Mitch changes word processors?  If he deletes the word
processing icon in Program manager, will his program be deleted from
the disk?

\end{quest}

When Mitch moves on to Windows 95 (Get with the times, Mitch!)  he can
do similar work.  Windows 95 still has program manager, but most
people prefer to use the start menu or desktop.  Common files can be
dragged to either of these things and will become part of that
symbolic structure.

\subsubsection{Example}

Sally's computer has Windows 3.1 and she wants to take advantage of
the symbolic representation scheme available in Windows 3.1 to
organize some files for an important project she is developing for her
job as a teacher. She spends a lot of time working on this project and
she would like to be able to find all the files related to this
project quickly and easily. Sally works on several different
computers, including the one she has at home, and having all the files
in one places makes it very convenient to copy the files to a diskette
and transport them.  

Her word processor which is Microsoft Word has been installed in its
own directory, called Word. The spreadsheet program she has chosen for
this project is Microsoft Excel, and it has been installed in the
Excel directory. Because she is going to present this project to a
group of teachers she has developed a presentation in Microsoft
Powerpoint which is a graphics program which has been installed in the
Powerpoint directory on her computer. Sally decides to create a
program group in Program Manager called Sally's Project. She doesn't
remember how to create a program group because this isn't a task she
does very often. She clicks on the help menu and then chooses search
from the toolbar. She types in create program group and the help
window tells her what she has to do to create a program group. She
follows the instructions and creates her Sally's Project program
group.

Sally then opens this empty program group and goes back to the help
menu to see how to create icons for all her project files. The help
file tells her she can create icons from the files in File Manager, so
she opens the File Manager program and follows the help instructions
to create the icons she wants. Sally then has symbolic representations
for all the files involved in her project.

\section{Laboratory Assignment}

BE SURE to follow along with your instructor. If you move ahead and
get lost, we won't help you return.  Don't worry about the THOUSANDS
of details you will learn today. Concentrate on the strategies. They
are what you really need, anyway.  The specific commands will
change. The underlying strategies will not.  Learn HOW to do things,
not just WHAT to do.

Pay close attention to your instructors.  This lab will be a little
different in every computer laboratory, so your instructions might
vary.  You may or may not be able to do all the parts of this lab
assignment.  Check with your instructor.

\subsection{Getting to a Program Symbolically}

You have already done this a couple of times, but let's find a program
you have never found before!

  Your job is to find an ACCESSORY program called Paint (or
Paintbrush).  Use a symbolic representation scheme (Start menu on
Windows 95 or Program Manager on Win 3.1) to find the Accessories.

If you are using Macintoshes, your instructor will tell you how to
find a paint program through the Apple window.

Fumble around a little bit!  It's ok to be lost.  You CAN find it.
Run the program.


\subsection{Doing Windows}

GUI environments put all programs in entities called windows.  (Thus,
the name of the operating system!).  It is possible and often
necessary to manipulate a window.

\subsubsection{Maximizing}

There are buttons on the upper right corner of many windows that allow
you to do some manipulations with the window.  Play with these buttons
in the paint window and see if you can figure out their purpose.  You
should find a button that makes the window fill up the entire screen.
This is called maximizing.  It is often a good idea to maximize a
program if you are doing a lot of work on it.  This helps you
concentrate on the project at hand, and keeps other programs out of
the way.  It also gives your current program all the screen real
estate.

\subsubsection{Minimizing}  

You will find another button on the upper right that makes the program
seem to disappear.  It is NOT really gone!  This behavior is called
minimizing.  If you look carefully, you will see that the program icon
is still visible somewhere.  If you are in Windows 3.1, you will see
an icon for the program on the desktop.  In Windows 95, you will see
an icon for the program in the bottom row of the screen.  Double click
on the icon, and the program comes back.

\begin{quest}

Why on earth would you want to do this?

\end {quest}

Note that Macintosh does not currently have a way to minimize a
window.  The closest equivalent would be hiding the program in the
programs menu.

\subsubsection{Resizable Windows}

You may also find an icon that allows you to have a window that is
neither minimized or maximized.  You can make this window just about
any size you want by dragging the sides or corners.  Play around with
this feature in your paint program until you are confident you can
make it any size you want.

You can also move a resizable window.  Usually this is done by
dragging the TITLE BAR (often it is a dark color, and it usually has
the name of the program or the file).  Try moving your paintbrush
picture around as well.

The resizing and moving options are useful when you have more than one
program running at a time.

Many operating systems also have a tile command available on the menus
that automatically give each program you have open the same amount of
space on the screen.  This can be a very handy feature.


\subsection{The Picture of Success}

Use your painting program to draw a lovely picture.  Or use it to draw
an ugly picture.  You have a time limit.  It's ok if you don't know
exactly how to do things.  Experimentation is good. Everything you
need is available through icons, menus, and online help.


\subsection{Saving}

When you are satisfied with your masterpiece, we are going to save it
to your disk.  You should have no problem finding a save command.
Stop for a second when you get to it.

You will find something that might look like Figure~\ref{Save}.

\imagefig{Save}{Save dialog 1}
If you look carefully, you will notice that this dialog box is a
miniature file management program (!)  Right now, it is pointed at
some strange directory.  (Yours will be different than mine, I'm sure)
The important thing to know is that the box shows you a directory
structure and some files.  This probably isn't where you want to save
your painting.  (Remember, we wanted to save it to our floppy disk,
which is called A) Try to back up to something you recognize.  You
will eventually encounter something like Figure~\ref{Save2}.

\imagefig{Save2}{Save dialog 2}
You can see that we now have a pointer to the A: drive.  Cool!  Click
on it to go there.  (Make sure you have your disk in the drive
first!!!)  Right now, we have never saved the file, so the program
doesn't know what to call it.  Let's give it a name.  MyPaint would be
a good name.  If you're in Win 95 or the Mac system, you could use a
more elaborate name with spaces and a longer more descriptive title,
but MyPaint seems fine.  If you want, you can put the .bmp part on
(making the name MyPaint.bmp) but if you don't add the extension, most
programs will add the right extension for you.  It's a bad idea to
change the extension to anything but .bmp, because the extension is
what the operating system uses to know the file was created in
paintbrush.  Type the name in the Filename box, or whatever facsimile
you see.

Hit the Save button. Wheeeeee!
You should see the light on the A: drive light up.  
Close the Paint program.  (Close it all the way.  Don't just minimize it)

Re-open the paint program.  Choose Open File from the file menu.  Note
that we will once again have to look for the A: drive.

Try to load up your file.

Close Paint one more time.

\subsection{File Handling}

\subsubsection{Using A File Manager}

Use a file manager to locate your file again.  If you are in windows
3.1, find the file manager icon (a file cabinet) with Program Manager

If you are in Win 95, find windows explorer from the start menu On the
Macintosh, you are already in a file manager when the computer is
turned on. (wow!)

Once you get into the file manager, look at the floppy disk.  You are
clever.  You don't need the details!

Double click on the icon that represents your painting.  There it is!!!

Minimize (don't completely close) your paint program.


\subsubsection{Multitasking}

Notice that the file manager program was already open, but selecting
your painting caused your paint program to open as well.  Two programs
are open at the same time!  This is an example of multitasking.  There
are some key concepts here you need to be aware of.

\begin{itemize}

\item More than one program can be open at a time.  (but you figured
that out.)

\item Only one program at a time is active.  

\item The active program looks like it is in the front of the screen
(nothing overlaps it), and it usually has a darker caption bar than
the other programs.

\item You can often see programs that are NOT the active program in
the background.  If you click on one of these programs, it will become
active.

\end{itemize}

Try it now.  Make sure your paint program is sizable so you can see
the file manager in the background.  Click on the file manager.  Look
what happens!  Go back to the paintbrush program if you can by
clicking on it.  Different operating systems handle multitasking
differently, but all have ways of showing you what the open programs
are.

\subsubsection{Creating a new subdirectory}

Get back to your file management program.

Go to your main hard drive root directory Create a new subdirectory
from the root called MYTEMP.  (If there's already a MYTEMP, call yours
something else.  It doesn't matter what.)

You may have to look on menus for the command to create a new
directory.  Explore! Be bold!

Copy your file from your disk to the new directory.  There are a
number of ways to do this.  Compare your method with what your
classmates discover.

Delete your subdirectory.  Note that you have to delete your file
first.  It's OK.  You still have a copy on your floppy disk.

\subsubsection{Try it again with another file manager}

Try to repeat the process above with another file manager, like
Windows Explorer, or Win 3.1 file manager.  The commands may be
different, but the concept is the same.

\subsubsection{Demonstration of DOS}

Your lab instructor will demonstrate how exactly the same project can
be done in a command line.  Note that there are commands to type, but
the principle is the same.  If time allows, you may also see a
demonstration of UNIX.

\subsubsection{Running Tutorials}

Most modern operating systems have very nice tutorials that explain
how to use the system.  Run a tutorial and go through the steps.  If
you are in Windows 95 choose help from the start menu.  If you are in
Windows 3.1, choose Help With Windows from the program manager help
menu.  In the Macintosh world, find a file like ``Getting started with
Macintosh''.  Your instructor will help you find the correct tutorial.
(To a point.... You are pretty clever at this stuff now!)


\subsection{Your assignment}

Your instructor has hidden a special file somewhere in the lab
network.  She or he will give you some hints about how to find that
file.  Your mission is to find the file and copy it to your floppy.
You will need to turn in your floppy to the lab instructor.  You will
be graded on the presence of this special treasure and your painting.
Don't worry, we won't grade you on your artistic abilities!


\section{Vocabulary/Important Concepts}

\begin{vocab}

\begin{definition}

\item[\bf Operating System]

An operating system is a special computer program that controls and
monitors the hardware and software within a computer system.

\item[\bf  Directory]

A directory is a main branch in a file management system. The root
directory is where the directories are located.

\item[\bf Subdirectory]

A subdirectory is a directory which is located on levels below the
directory level. For example, if you see \verb/C:\WINDOWS\WORD>/ in your file
management system, WORD is the subdirectory.

\item[\bf File]

A file is a collection of data that exists at the end of the directory
structure; below the last subdirectory branch. The three character
extension in a file name helps you tell where the file was created.

\item[\bf Icon]

A small picture you may click on to do things on a computer.

\item[\bf Interface]

The interface helps you interact with the computer; it is what comes
between you and the hardware and software.

\item[\bf GUI]

Graphic User Interface. This interface allows you to point and click
on an icon to perform computer operations. Windows 3.1 and Windows 95
are examples of operating systems that have graphical user interfaces.

\item[\bf Command Line Interface]

An interface in which you must type all the commands which are to be
executed by the computer. MS-DOS and UNIX are examples of this type of
interface.

\item[\bf Case Sensitive]

An operating system that responds differently to lower case characters
and upper case characters. UNIX is an example of this kind of
operating system.

\item[\bf Booting]

Loading the operating system into memory, i.e. turning on your
computer. This expression originated with the idea that the computer
is becoming active by ``pulling itself up by its bootstraps''.

\item[\bf Formatting]

Preparing a disk drive to receive information. Disks must be formatted
for the specific operating system they are to be used on.

\item[\bf File Manager]

The file handling system in Windows 3.1. This system allows you to
move files, copy or delete files, create directories, etc..

\item[\bf Drive Box]

Drive boxes let you click on them to choose different drive views in
the File Manager program of Windows 3.1.

\item[\bf Task Bar]

The bar in Windows 95 which is usually at the bottom of the
screen. The task bar has the start button, and holds icons for
minimized programs.

\item[\bf Prompt]

In command line interface operating systems the prompt is what appears
when your computer is booted up. It ``prompts'' you to type in commands.

\item[\bf Path]

The path includes the directories and subdirectories you must go
through to find a particular file; i.e. in a command line operating
system, what you must type and in what order to locate a file.

\item[\bf Syntax]

The exact way a command must be entered or typed in order to work
correctly.

\item[\bf Windows 3.1]

An operating system developed by Microsoft with a GUI interface.

\item[\bf Windows 95]

Windows 95 is an upgrade to Windows 3.1 which was released in August
of 1995. It is also a GUI operating system.

\item[\bf MS-DOS]

Microsoft Disk Operating System. Sold to IBM by Bill Gates for use
with their PC in 1981, MS-DOS became the industry standard for IBM and
IBM type computers.


\item[\bf UNIX]

UNIX is a command line interface operating system which is the most
commonly used operating system for multiple computers.

\item[\bf System 7+]

System 7+ is the operating system developed by Apple Computer for its
Macintosh computer. It is a GUI operating system

\item[\bf Multitasking]

Running more than one program at the same time on a computer, i.e.,
having more than one program open.

\end{definition}
\end{vocab}

\section{Summary}

Operating systems control the memory and files of the
computer. Operating systems set up the user interface which helps you
as the user interact effectively with your computer.The two kinds of
interfaces available are GUI which is graphical user interface, and
command line interface. Operating systems also have file management
programs to help you copy, move, delete and organize directories,
subdirectories, and files. Operating systems also have symbolic
representation schemes to further help the user interact with files
and programs.




\section{Review Questions}

\begin{quest}
What is a GUI?
\end{quest}

\begin{quest}
What is a command line interface?
\end{quest}

\begin{questx}

Describe how you would copy a file from the hard drive to your
diskette while working in Windows 95.

\end{questx}

There are several ways to accomplish this task, including opening two
copies of Windows Explorer and dragging and dropping the file from c:
drive to a: drive.

\anslist{abosans}

\end{document}


\section{Questions for team}

Module Effectiveness Assessment/Questions for the Committee
Is there enough detail in all the sections?


Is there too much detail in any of the sections?


Does the lab assignment need more detail?


Should the DOS practice part of the lab be deleted from the lab assignment?


Is there enough use of the STAIR process?


Should the history section be larger or smaller?


Are there enough questions in each of the sections?











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